CRUCIFIXION

The body is left hanged

In antiquity crucifixion was considered one of the most brutal and shameful modes of death. Probably originating with the Assyrians and Babylonians, it was used systematically by the Persians in the 6th century BC. Alexander the Great brought it from there to the eastern Mediterranean countries in the 4th century BC, and the Phoenicians introduced it to Rome in the 3rd century BC. It was virtually never used in pre-Hellenic Greece. The Romans perfected crucifixion for 500 years until it was abolished by Constantine I in the 4th century AD. Crucifixion in Roman times was applied mostly to slaves, disgraced soldiers, Christians and foreigners--only very rarely to Roman citizens. 

Some research stated that "Most physicians believe that a crucified individual’s normal respiration was hindered so severely as to cause asphyxiation. In addition to asphyxia, the victim would be suffering from shock due to preliminary flogging and/or the nails that were hammered into the hands and feet." 

Death, usually after 6 hours to 4 days, was due to multifactorial pathology: after-effects of compulsory scourging and maiming, dehydration causing shock and pain, but the most important factor was progressive asphyxia caused by impairment of respiratory movement. Death was probably commonly precipitated by cardiac arrest, caused by vasovagal reflexes, initiated inter alia by severe pain, body blows and breaking of the large bones.  Some stated that "In crucifixion, death never comes quickly, but the pain and torture do; and they continue. It is for these reasons that crucifixion was a far worse death sentence than ad bestias, the sack, vivicombustion, or any other method of execution (Aubert and Sirks, 113)." 

Lastly, the attending Roman guards could only leave the site after the victim had died, and were known to precipitate death by means of deliberate fracturing of the tibia and/or fibula, spear stab wounds into the heart, sharp blows to the front of the chest, or a smoking fire built at the foot of the cross to asphyxiate the victim.